Egyptian Archaeologist and Mummy Expert Refutes It, Citing Biased Colonial Interpretations and Lack of Scientific Evidence
CAIRO — October 2026 — Renowned paleoradiologist and mummy expert Professor Dr. Sahar Saleem has strongly criticized a recent American study that revives the theory of human sacrifice and ritual offerings during ancient Egypt’s Early Dynastic Period. She argues that the study lacks rigorous scientific evidence and relies on a highly selective sample shaped by
colonial-era ideologies.
Titled “New data from old bones: using bioarchaeology and forensics to reassess legacy data from ancient Abydos, Egypt,” the study was published on October 5 in Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology by Dr. Roselyn Campbell of Purdue University, USA. Examining skulls held at the Duckworth Laboratory, University of Cambridge, UK, the paper argues that servants and royal retainers were executed en masse during the early First Dynasty.
Abydos Kings and Tombs Targeted by the Study
Professor Saleem explained that the study examined just 46 skulls selectively curated from subsidiary graves surrounding three early First Dynasty rulers at Umm el-Qa’ab, the royal cemetery at Abydos:
- King Djer: The third king of the First Dynasty, whose funerary complex contains hundreds of subsidiary graves for court attendants.
- King Djet: The fourth king of the First Dynasty, whose tomb is similarly surrounded by hundreds of subsidiary graves.
- Queen Merneith: A powerful ruling pharaoh and queen regent whose complex contains dozens of secondary burials.
The study identified signs of violence, trauma, and severe blunt-force impact on only 18 of the 46 skulls. From this, Campbell concluded that court attendants were forcibly executed in a synchronized ritual during the king’s burial to accompany him into the afterlife.
Saleem stressed that these skulls cannot statistically represent the 700–900 subsidiary tombs across the site. They account for only a small sample—between 5% and 15% of the original burials—and were shipped to Britain in the 1920s for “craniometrics” databases used to support colonial and racist racial theories.
Early excavator Flinders Petrie prioritized structurally intact skulls suitable for measurement and reconstruction, leaving fragmented skulls and other skeletal remains in Egypt. This selection makes the exported sample statistically unrepresentative and unsuitable for generalizing about the entire burial population.
Refuting the “Trauma”: Primitive Methods and Paraffin Wax
In challenging the fracture claims, Saleem noted that the American study relied entirely on macroscopic visual inspection—examining 5,000-year-old bones with the naked eye. This method is insufficient to distinguish perimortem trauma, or injuries around the time of death, from damage caused by soil compression, natural decomposition, or rough excavation tools used in the 20th century.
She also highlighted that the skulls were coated in thick layers of paraffin wax a century ago to stabilize them during transport. The wax fills bone crevices, conceals microscopic fractures, and alters the bone surface’s natural coloration over time.
Consequently, identifying definitive perimortem trauma on the 18 skulls through visual inspection alone is subjective and potentially biased. Saleem contrasted this approach with the advanced, non-destructive medical imaging technologies Egypt routinely uses today to examine its heritage.
Refuting “Mass Slaughter”: Continuous Roofs Versus Phased Architecture
Saleem argued that the theory of simultaneous mass sacrifice rests on a flawed architectural assumption made by early 20th-century excavators. They believed the subsidiary tombs surrounding the pharaoh were covered by one continuous mudbrick-and-mud roof, suggesting that everyone was buried and sealed on the day of the royal funeral.
Modern archaeological evidence challenges this assumption:
- Modular roofs: Archaeologist George Reisner criticized the theory as early as 1936. He argued that the roofs consisted of separate, multi-piece timber-and-mud units for individual chambers, rather than a single continuous slab.
- Structural brickwork: Recent excavations by the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) at Abydos have identified clear join lines in the mudbrick walls of subsidiary tombs. These indicate that the chambers were constructed, expanded, and joined in distinct phases over time, rather than built in a single day.
- Sequential deaths and burials: This architectural evidence challenges the idea of simultaneous funerary executions. It suggests that palace artisans, artists, minor wives, and servants died at different times and from different causes throughout the king’s reign, which could last up to three decades. They were buried individually in designated chambers with their tools and personal belongings to accompany the pharaoh into the afterlife, rather than being killed en masse at his funeral.
A Ritual Contradicting the Cosmic Order of Ma’at
Saleem emphasized that human sacrifice targeting royal attendants has never been documented or supported at another archaeological site in Egypt. She described the Abydos interpretation as a legacy of inadequate documentation and oversimplified excavation methods from the early 1900s.
She also argued that executing loyal court members would violate the core principles of Ma’at, ancient Egypt’s supreme cosmic, moral, and religious ideal of justice, truth, balance, and peace. The pharaoh was divinely bound to uphold Ma’at and defeat chaos and injustice. A mass slaughter of innocent subjects would fundamentally disrupt this order and, she argues, conflict with the religious and ideological responsibilities of an Egyptian ruler.
Ritual Violence Was Reserved for Foreign Enemies and Rebels, Not Servants
Saleem explained that ritualized violence in ancient Egypt operated within a defined legal and geopolitical framework. Ritual execution and symbolic striking were directed not at loyal attendants but at foreign prisoners of war, rebels, and state traitors considered threats to national order.
She stated: “Early dynastic masterpieces like the Narmer Palette explicitly depict the iconographic ritual of ‘smiting the enemies’ (Hwt-pdt). This was a calculated military and legal tool to safeguard the sovereign state and protect Ma’at. Any evidence of trauma on a select few skulls at Abydos—if verified—more likely points to executed prisoners of war or criminals buried in the vicinity, rather than a slaughter of the king’s mummified inner circle [3].”
A Humanitarian Call to Repatriate Human Remains
Saleem concluded her scientific critique with a humanitarian appeal for a coordinated international effort to repatriate ancient Egyptian skeletal remains, bones, and mummified bodies held in museums outside Egypt, including collections at Cambridge and University College London (UCL).
Her appeal rests on two principles. The first is ethical and humanitarian: granting the deceased eternal peace by respecting their religious intention to remain buried in their homeland. The second is scientific: Egyptian researchers possess advanced non-invasive imaging technology, relevant expertise, and cultural context to study and protect ancestral remains holistically, without the influence of outdated colonial interpretations that distort ancient Egyptian history.
Who Is Professor Dr. Sahar Saleem?
- Professor Dr. Sahar Saleem is a professor and former Head of the Radiology Department at Cairo University’s Faculty of Medicine.
- She is internationally recognized as a leading paleoradiologist and expert in the scientific scanning of ancient mummies, serving as an accredited reference in biological heritage.
- She is a prominent member of the Museum Exhibition Committee of Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, helping shape the scientific presentation of royal mummies and archaeological discoveries at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization (NMEC) in Fustat and the Cairo International Airport Museum.
- She is a lead scientist in the state-run Egyptian Mummy Project, under the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.
- Saleem has led and published pioneering research using computed tomography (CT) scans to investigate the medical and historical mysteries of Egypt’s royal pharaohs. Her discoveries include examining the battlefield execution of Seqenenre Tao, uncovering embalming evidence and challenging the murder-blow theory surrounding Tutankhamun, and identifying the throat-slashing assassination of Ramesses III in the Harem Conspiracy. She also digitally scanned King Amenhotep I without removing his ancient wrappings and has studied the Screaming Mummy and numerous other royal remains.
- She has received national and international awards, including recognition as an Icon of Successful Women by the Presidency of the Egyptian Republic.